Honors Component: Genocide Slideshow

Although the root of genocide varies, as it may occur due to racial, religious, or political differences, the result always ends in the systematic extermination of innocent people. Perhaps the most famous genocide was the Holocaust, where Jews, Poles, Romany, and homosexuals were targeted by Nazi Germany and Hitler. The consequent deaths of 6 million Jews astounded the international public. Jimmy Carter stated that, "We must forge an unshakable oath with all civilized people that never again will the world stand silent, never again will the world...fail to act in time to prevent this terrible crime of genocide..." However, genocide has occurred numerous times since the Holocaust, most recently in Darfur. Although a treaty was signed in 2010 to end violence in the region, conflict between the belligerent rebel groups and the local civilians continues and has spread to neighboring nations like Chad. By clicking here, you can learn more about the current situation in Darfur and the various ways in which you can help.  

Danse Macabre

Wolgemut's Danse Macabre, 1493

Michael Wolgemut’s Danse Macabre is a testament to the lasting horrors of the Black Plague, one of the most catastrophic epidemics within modern history. The Black Plague originated in Asia and spread to the European continent by way of the Silk Road and boats (Duiker 345). Italy, a major trading company in the 14th century, was ravaged by the disease first in 1347; the Plague then overtook nearly the entire European continent within four years due to its highly infectious nature (Duiker 346-47). Although the pestilence resulted in horrible symptoms, the rapid death rate was the main cause of hysteria: 38 out of 75 million Europeans died within a four year time span (Duiker 346). Wolgemut created this piece in 1493 during the final stages of the Middle Ages where the social atmosphere, especially in Wolgemut’s native Germany, continued to be affected by the lasting trauma of the Black Plague (Knox). 

Artistically, Wolgemut’s work is not beautiful, instead capturing the essence of the Black Death. The process of decay, as demonstrated by the character on the far right, explicitly shows vital organs and intestines spilling out towards the dirt ground despite the remnants of human flesh that still cling to his severely emaciated frame (Knox). Additionally, the sumptuous folds of fabric that envelop his limbs suggest former wealth, alluding to the fact that death did not discriminate against social and economic class. Wolgemut purposely does not distinguish his skeletons as male or female, representing the fact that the Plague attacked both human genders, including children. Wolgemut argues for the inescapability of death through the portrayal of the shackles that bind the ankles of the two central skeletons. The inclusion of several snakes in this woodcut introduces overt messages to both the intended audience and society. Biblically, snakes symbolized Satan—and evil—as he disguised himself as the reptile in the Garden of Eve and consequently mislead Adam and Eve from God. Thus, Wolgemut’s strategic placing of three snakes, one slithering out of the chest of the farthermost right almost-skeleton and two (one in the ribs, another the right bicep) on the almost-skeleton located in the grave indicate the presence of Satan on Earth during the Black Plague, perhaps suggesting that he poisoned man’s heart and indirectly created a sinful world . Thus, Wolgemut’s work acts as propaganda and a warning to a German society that was transitioning towards the Renaissance (and a more secular society) as it threatens both the degradation of health and spiritual salvation save the continuation of faith as a personal cornerstone (Duiker 351). 

Dance Macabre documents the very real harms of the Black Plague through showing the perverse nature of death. Europe had never experienced something as destructive as the Black Plague and therefore associated epidemic with death.  Despite this fact, Wolgemut captures the social obsession with pestilence through illustrating the dance of death, a fate no one escapes.

Works Cited

“Danse Macabre.” Wikipedia. 1 May 2011. Wikimedia Foundation 18 Apr 2011.

Duikier William J. and Jackson J. Spielvogel, eds. World History. 5th ed. Belmont, CA: Thomas Wadsworth, 2007.

Knox, Dr. E. L. Skip. Europe in the Late Middle Ages. Boise State University. Web. 18 Apr 2011.

MacKenbach, John P. “Dances of Death, Occupational Morality Statistics, and Social Critique.” BJM: British Medical Journal 313.7072 (1996): 1587-1591. Print.

“Michael Wolgemut.” Wikipedia. 27 Jan 2011. Wikimedia Foundation. 1 May 2011.

Norwich, John Julius, ed. Oxford illustrated Encyclopedia of the Arts. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.

Fire in the Borgo

Raphael's Fire in the Borgo, 1514

                Raffaello Sanzio de Urbino, also known by his name Raphael, is credited by many as the best painter of the High Renaissance in Italy. From the beginning of his career in Urbino, Italy, Raphael showed extraordinary talent; after a short time as a “master” of art, Pope Julius II requested Raphael’s presence in Rome in 1508 (Web Gallery of Art). This commenced Raphael’s final period of working, which led to the creation of the “Raphael Room,” a collection of his most famous works of art. These collections feature four sections: the Sala di Costantino, Stanza di Eliodoro, Stanza della Segnatura, and the Stanza dell'incendio del Borgo (Web Gallery of Art). Even though Julius II died before the completion of the rooms, the new pope, Leo X, continued to commission Raphael (Raphael). Thus, the Fire in the Borgo, located within the Stanza dell’incendio del Borgo, was finished in 1514 under Leo X (Web Gallery of Art). The inspiration for the piece was the legend of Pope Leo IV who put out a fire ravaging the Borgo (the Borgo is a Roman district) with a simple sign of the cross in 847 CE (The Fire in the Borgo). 

                The design of the Fire in the Borgo uses several artistic techniques that appear in many of Raphael’s other works. Perspective and the pyramid configuration mechanisms used by Raphael to show two scenes: the first a scene of fire and the frantic citizens in the Borgo, the second Pope Leo IV and a collection of people surrounding his palace. These two worlds are distanced by plaza. However, the distinct contrast between the two scenes illustrate the harmony and serenity felt by the spectators reveling in the presence of his holiness, the Pope, who is the manifestation of God on earth and the disunity and chaos of a world without his guidance and help. Chiaroscuro is also applied to highlight the brightness of the plaza occupied by Leo IV and the fiery depths of the Borgo, thereby enhancing either the tranquility or hopelessness of the scene’s situation. References to Greek antiquity and mythology are apparent in the Fire in the Borgo, ranging from the style of the columns and arches to clothing the figures don. The man carrying the jaundiced older man out of the burning Borgo is allusion to Virgil’s Aeneid where Anchises is rescued by his son, Aeneas from the fires of Troy (Badt 36, The Fire in the Borgo). The integration of classical text demonstrates the social adoption of Greco-Roman culture, which inspired an intellectual movement (Duiker 351).Thus, Raphael’s incorporation of Greco-Roman legends influence the subject matter of the work. 

                Although death is not explicitly present within Raphael’s Fire in the Borgo, death’s friend, destruction, ravages part of Rome through fire. Additionally, the Greek sacking of Troy in the Aeneid, which was inspiration for Raphael’s fresco, resulted in the accumulated deaths of Greek soldiers and Trojan citizens. Thus, the Fire in the Borgo is allegorical for encounters with death.  

Works Cited

“Aeneid.” Wikipedia. 21 Apr 2011. Wikimedia Foundation. 1 May 2011.

Badt, Kurt. “Raphael’s ‘Incendio del Borgo.’” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 22.1/2 (1959): 35-39. Print.

Duikier William J. and Jackson J. Spielvogel, eds. World History. 5th ed. Belmont, CA: Thomas Wadsworth, 2007.

Krén, Emil and Daniel Marx. Web Gallery of Art. Emil Krén and Daniel Marx, 2011. Web. 19 Apr 2011.

“Raphael.” Wikipedia. 4 Apr 2011. Wikimedia Foundation. 1 May 2011.

“Raphael Rooms.” Wikipedia. 28 Apr 2011. Wikimedia Foundation. 1 May 2011.

“The Fire in the Borgo.” Wikipedia. 12 Jan 2011. Wikimedia Foundation. 1 May 2011.

Marat Assassinated

David's Marat Assassinated, 1793

                Marat Assassinated by Jacques-Louis David forever immortalized the power of revolutionaries during the French Revolution. Organized social and political dissent to Louis XVI began with the meeting of the Estates-General in 1789, where the Third Estates’ lack of political rights, specifically the lack of the right to vote, became apparent when dealing with the economic meltdown that inflated taxes in ridiculous proportions (Duiker 495-96). Consequently, the First and Second Estates, comprised of the aristocracy and clergy, refused to allow the Third Estate, the remaining populous political equality; the representatives of the “nation” formed the National Assembly to counteract the corrupt system of monarchy (Duiker 496-97). This act of rebellion spiraled into a revolution where the once distinct aim of establishing national by means of enlightment transitioned into Robespierre’s Reign of Terror, which saw the unjustified deaths of countless citizens (497-499). Marat, a radical journalist and politician during the French Revolution, was a central public figure in France as well as affiliating with Robespierre and the Jacobins (Boston College). On July 13, 1793, Charlotte Corday killed Marat in his home (Jean Paul Marat). 

                David’s portrayal of Marat’s assassination is considered a masterpiece for several reasons. The incorporation of neo-classicism’s definitive themes of violence, sacrifice and commitment conveyed David’s artistic message. Violence is first depicted through the bloody, gaping wound that punctures Marat’s chest. Blood seeps down his chest, travels to his arms, and stains the white fabric and papers held in his left hand. David also includes the weapon of death, the knife, in the lower left corner; it is saturated in his blood. Marat’s death demonstrates sacrifice and commitment as he slumps in his bath dead, still clutching documents and a quill. These tools not only symbolized Marat’s method of participation in the Revolution, but also the way in which enlightened philosophers were able to spread their treatises to the general public (Duiker 480). Marat’s face, body, and desk are bathed in a saintly light with chiaroscuro, emphasizing the nobility of his life’s pursuit; David depicts Marat as a political martyr (Gombrich 485). Moreover, David uses death to represent the love that Marat had for his work and for France. 

                David’s Marat Assassinated is a tribute to not only the memory of Jean Paul Marat, but also to the precepts that he died for. David argues that death, dealt by the unforgiving knife of Charlotte Corday, irrationally robbed a nation of its beloved leader without regard of the negative consequences that would affect society in the future. 

Works Cited

Duikier William J. and Jackson J. Spielvogel, eds. World History. 5th ed. Belmont, CA: Thomas Wadsworth, 2007.

Gombriech, E. H. The Story of Art. New York: Phaidon Press Limited, 2008. Print.

“Jacques-Louis David.” Wikipedia. 20 Apr 2011. Wikimedia Foundation. 30 Apr 2011.

“Jean-Paul Marat.” Wikipedia. 20 Apr 2011. Wikimedia Foundation. 20 Apr 2011.

Pioch, Nicolas. WebMuseum, Paris: David, Jacques-Louis. BWM Foundation. 14 Jul. 2002. Web. 19 Apr 2011.

“The Death of Marat.” Wikipedia. 14 Apr 2011. Wikimedia Foundation. 30 Apr 2011.

Guernica

Picasso's Guernica, 1937

                Pablo Picasso’s Guernica represents the destruction of the small Basque city, Guernica, in 1937 during the Spanish Civil War. The Civil War broke out in 1936 as two parties, the Nationalist rebels and the Republican Party (who maintained political control up to that point) vied for control of the Spanish government (Spanish Civil War). The Nationalists, led by Francisco Franco, received support from Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany while the Soviet Union and the International Brigade (a coalition of volunteers who represented various European countries and the United States) aided the Republicans (Spanish Civil War). After a year of fighting over Spanish territories and mainland, the Nationalist’s German affiliates bombed Guernica on April 26, 1937 (Chip 101). Guernica was not a city equipped for the ramifications of war and therefore collapsed under the aerial attack. Women and children comprised the majority of casualties (Sandberg 246). The bombing of the defenseless population resulted in international condemnation. On May 1st, Picasso began work on Guernica. The painting was commissioned by the Republican government as a response to the brutality of war and the loss of the innocent (Guernica). 

                Guernica unites the realms of cubism and politics to express the grief felt by the Spanish public. The tone of Picasso’s work lays the foundation of the subject matter: the blues, grays, and black colors create a somber quality that is necessary for recounting the deaths of Guernica’s citizens. Various subjects, like the hysteric mother who cradles her dead child, the frantic horse, and the terrified figure on the farthermost right represent the immediate panic and fear that is a natural product of war. The nearly identical expressions of confusion and incredulity shared by the bull, the dead man sprawled underneath the horse, and the “floating” female face (upper right hand corner) demonstrate the chaos that war brings to any location (Guernica). The solitary lamp held by the outstretched arm offsets the exploding light bulb, offering light in the midst of darkness. A woman is entranced by this object, as if her salvation from this room of hell—her world—is dependent upon it. The buckled knee of the horse smashes a flower, alluding to the destruction of the world’s beauty. 

                Picasso portrays the devastation of Guernica with his trademark cubist and abstract style of art. Cubism and abstract art do not portray an ideal; rather, they accentuate the harsh realities of an imperfect world. These styles of art allow Picasso to show not only the lawlessness of conflict directed towards innocent civilians, but also the broken condition of society as a consequence to war.  Moreover, Picasso uses Guernica to express the negative ramifications of war and to commemorate the slaughter of Guernica’s citizens. 

Works Cited

Chip, Hershel B. “Guernica: Love, War, and the Bullfight.” Art Journal 33.2 (1973-74): 100-115. Print.

Duikier William J. and Jackson J. Spielvogel, eds. World History. 5th ed. Belmont, CA: Thomas Wadsworth, 2007.

“Guernica (painting).” Wikipedia. 29 Apr 2011. Wikimedia Foundation. 1 May 2011.

International World History Project. The Spanish Civil War. International World History Project. Jan 2007. Web. 1 May 2011.

Picasso, Pablo. Pablo Picasso: Guernica. Pablo Picasso. 2008. Web. 19 Apr 2011.

Sandberg, W. J. H. B. “Picasso’s Guernica.” Daedalus 89.1 (1960): 245-252. Print.

Vietcong Execution

Adam's Vietcong Execution, 1968

                The Vietnam War marked a period of communist and democratic hegemony over Indochina. Problems regarding Indochina’s territory, and the respective government, commenced with the Geneva Conference in 1954, where the land was split into two opposing regions: a communist North Vietnam and the non-communist southern Vietnam (Duiker 732-33). Despite the attempts to stabilize the area, war broke out in the early 1960s (Duiker 738). Southern Vietnam was particularly weak after defending itself from communist factions like the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF) and the Viet Cong, who fought American and anti-communist troops famously employing guerilla warfare tactics (Duiker 739). Despite the best efforts of anti-communist forces, the capital city of Saigon was captured on April 30, 1975 by North Vietnamese troops, marking the end of the war.  North and South Vietnam became the communist Socialist Republic of Vietnam on July 2, 1976. 

                Eddie Adams, a famous photo-journalist with an extensive background in covering wars, photographed Nguyen Ngoc Loan execute Nguyen Van Lem in Saigon, southern Vietnam’s capital, on February 1, 1968. Ngoc Loan led the southern Vietnamese police force who captured the Vietcong-affiliated Van Lem. Despite the intimate connection with the Vietnam War, the raw power of this photograph stunned the international audience by its ability to transcend its relationship with Vietnam and its ability to capture human nature by displaying the paradoxical positions that people occupy. First, Nguyen Ngoc Loan fulfills the role of the triumphant hunter who eyes his prey with unwavering purpose. The extension of his arm displays the tension of the scene, as his muscles and tendons are taut. In contrast, the prisoner anticipates his inevitable death through his refusal to open his eyes and the grimace that displays his fear of the shiny, powerful gun. However, the two witnesses (not including Adams) participate in this photograph by their non-action. The bystanders had the ability to change the outcome—Nguyen Van Lem’s death—instead, they looked in the other direction and become passersby.  

                Adam’s Vietcong Execution is remarkable not only for its accurate representation of the daily struggle in Vietnam, but also for its starking portrayal of human nature. Death is an inevitable part of life, and the terse moments before Nguyen Van Lem’s execution symbolize not just the millions of lives lost in the Vietnam War, but nearly all deaths completed in the same unjust fashion. Adam’s uncensored photo shows the brutality of war—and death—through the calculated and detached way Nguyen Ngoc Loan regards Nguyen Van Lem. Instead of acknowledging Van Lem as a human, Ngoc Loan treats him like an animal, which is a travesty. Thus, the dehumanized Nguyen Van Lem dies in an unjustifiable manner, symbolizing the perverse nature of death.  

Works Cited

Duikier William J. and Jackson J. Spielvogel, eds. World History. 5th ed. Belmont, CA: Thomas Wadsworth, 2007.

“Eddie Adams (photographer).” Wikipedia. 19 Apr 2011. Wikimedia Foundation. 2 May 2011.

Halstead, Dirck. The Digital Journalist: Tribute to Eddie Adams—Vietcong Execution. Hewlett Packard, Nikon, 2004. Web. 18 Apr 2011.

“Vietnam War.” Wikipedia. 2 May 2, 2011. Wikimedia Foundation. 2 May 2011.